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@@ ccw 2 Examples of Usage: Marion will adapt to her new circumstances after a few weeks of discomfort. Even the greatest adepts failed at this task. What you need is someone adept at imitating a sandpiper. @@ ccw 10 Examples of Usage: The stock market's performance will affect his campaign considerably. She showed surprisingly little affect when discussing her problems. The effect of the stock market's performance was to discredit his economic program. @@ ccw 14 Examples of Usage: Try to approach the altar with a certain degree of decorum. Outings with his family always seem to involve altering our plans several times at the last minute. @@ ccw 21 Examples of Usage: When you have completed three difficult ascents, you might be considered for the mountain climbing club. Fred would never assent to such strong-arm tactics. @@ ccw 35 Examples of Usage: Reduced to penury, she was forced to take in boarders. Vermont borders New Hampshire. @@ ccw 49 Examples of Usage: Before tracing the deer on the canvas, apply black paint. Larry will canvass his friends to see who wants to go camping over Labor Day weekend. @@ ccw 82 Examples of Usage: We want this fragrance to envelop the wearer in mystery. He lost the manila envelope containing the winners' names. @@ ccw 166 Examples of Usage: Next he poured a foaming liquid into a large beaker. This exotic lotion tightens the pores and seems to restore lost youth. @@ clause 1 In some contexts, an incomplete sentence may be appropriate. For example, short answers are often expressed in sentence fragments. The decision to use incomplete sentences should be based on consideration of the style and purpose of the document. @@ clause 2 @@ clause 3 @@ clause 6 Avoid: Then they invited all their friends from Schenectady. After we had asked them not to. Better: Then they invited all their friends from Schenectady--after we had asked them not to. This message may appear when the subject of the sentence is itself a clause. While such a sentence is grammatically correct, it is sometimes awkward in style. You might see if you can rephrase it. Avoid: That he is efficient at his work and friendly to his colleagues is well known. [The subject is the clause "That he is efficient at his work and friendly to his colleagues".] Better: It is well known that he is efficient at his work and friendly to his colleagues. @@ clause 4 @@ clause 7 @@ clause 8 @@ clause 9 @@ clause 11 Avoid: The bell rang, both dogs ran to the door. Better: When the bell rang, both dogs ran to the door. Or: The bell rang; both dogs ran to the door. Avoid: We tried the Chinese restaurant that you recommended, we liked it. Better: We tried the Chinese restaurant that you recommended; we liked it. A comma may be used to separate independent clauses if the clauses are very short or if the ideas they express are very closely related. Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee. I came, I saw, I conquered. In such cases, a semicolon may seem too formal. When in doubt, however, use a semicolon. @@ clause 5 @@ clause 10 @@ clause 12 The use of conjunctions to begin a sentence is partly a question of style. They can be used with powerful effect to emphasize a point. Consider the differences among the following sentences: Joe wanted to explore the Nile, but Natalie felt such a trip was too arduous, and the entire expedition came to a halt. [Here, the sequence of events is highlighted; the clauses have equal emphasis.] Joe wanted to explore the Nile. But Natalie felt such a trip was too arduous, and the entire expedition came to a halt. [This wording emphasizes Natalie's reaction.] Joe wanted to explore the Nile, but Natalie felt such a trip was too arduous. And the entire expedition came to a halt. [This wording emphasizes the outcome.] Avoid beginning sentences with conjunctions when no contrast or particular rhetorical effect is intended. @@ clause 13 Avoid: We have quick response, and we have telephone access, and there are weekend operators. Better: We have quick response, telephone access, and weekend operators. Avoid: He changed the spark plugs, and he adjusted the timing, and now the car should run perfectly. Better: Since he changed the spark plugs and adjusted the timing, the car should run perfectly. Or: He changed the spark plugs and adjusted the timing. Now the car should run perfectly. @@ comp 1 The word "to" often precedes the infinitive form of the verb: This nozzle enables you to vacuum the radiator. A split infinitive occurs when an adverb or adverbial phrase is inserted between the "to" and the infinitive. Avoid: This nozzle enables you to rather efficiently vacuum the radiator. Better: This nozzle enables you to vacuum the radiator rather efficiently. Split infinitives are sometimes necessary to avoid awkwardness and ambiguity: They resolved to carefully weigh planned improvements against unanticipated results. Here, "carefully" modifies "weigh". Placing "carefully" before the infinitive would make it seem to modify "resolved"; placing it after the infinitive would make it seem to modify "planned"; placing it after "improvements" would separate phrases that belong together; and at the end of the sentence, it would be too far from the verb it modifies. In most cases, however, the adverbial material should follow the verb phrase, especially when it is parenthetical or complex. @@ comp 2 Check your sentence for a series of nouns that modify the same noun. If you do not want to rewrite the sentence using prepositional phrases in place of the nouns, determine if any nouns can be removed without affecting the meaning of the sentence. Avoid: The paper disposal funding bill was in dire need of modification. Better: The bill for funding paper disposal was in dire need of modification. @@ comp 3 There are several ways to avoid long sequences of prepositional phrases: delete phrases which do not affect the meaning, turn a phrase into a noun modifier, or rewrite the sentence as two or more sentences. Avoid: The book under the table in the corner of the office near the stairway is the one you need. Better: The book you need is in the office near the stairway. It's under the table in the corner. Or: The book you need is in the stairway office. It's under the corner table. @@ comp 4 @@ comp 5 Long sentences can be difficult for the reader to follow. In general an average sentence length of 15 to 20 words is considered quite readable. It is not necessary for all your sentences to be this length; variety in sentence length can help to keep your writing interesting. But the average should usually be around 15 or 20 words. The other primary factor affecting readability is the vocabulary. Use clear and concise language for the most effective communication. Complex multi-syllable words can reduce readability. @@ format 1 Avoid: One hundred thirty seven guests were invited. Better: One hundred thirty-seven guests were invited. @@ format 2 Avoid: The anniversary of his late dog Charley's death is May 11th. Better: The anniversary of his late dog Charley's death is May 11. Avoid: Didn't you say the exterminators are coming on the 3rd of October? Better: Didn't you say the exterminators are coming on October 3? @@ format 3 Examples of Usage: They earned a two percent commission on the sale. A certain percentage of the group will be divorced within five years. @@ format 4 @@ format 5 @@ format 6 Examples of Usage: We will have nuts, apples, raisins, etc., in the salad. Bring all the necessary supplies: tent and tarp; warm clothing such as gloves, socks, sweaters, etc.; and enough food for two weeks. When he told us that such items (chewing gum, hair spray, silver ID bracelets, etc.) were forbidden, a snicker went up from the audience. @@ format 8 Avoid: She could not in good conscience agree to meet her mother in Mazatlan on December 18th. Better: She could not in good conscience agree to meet her mother in Mazatlan on December 18. Avoid: This piece of metal fell off my car on July second. Better: This piece of metal fell off my car on July 2. @@ format 9 Avoid: I doubt that your breakfast cereal idea will bring in much $$$. Better: I doubt that your breakfast cereal idea will bring in much revenue. Avoid: In June, Ralph's $ situation took a turn for the worse. Better: In June, Ralph's money situation took a turn for the worse. @@ format 10 @@ format 11 Avoid: Meet my train at 8:33 o'clock. Better: Meet my train at 8:33 p.m. Avoid: A loud bang reverberated through the hall at about 3:00 o'clock. Better: A loud bang reverberated through the hall at about three o'clock. @@ format 12 The end of a sentence is signalled by a sentence terminator (period, question mark, or exclamation point) followed by a word beginning with an upper case letter. A terminator followed by a lower case letter is assumed to be an error. @@ format 16 @@ format 23 Avoid: 3105 votes went to his opponent. Better: His opponent received 3105 votes. @@ format 17 Avoid: September, 1985 saw a dramatic increase in sales. Better: September 1985 saw a dramatic increase in sales. Avoid: Who died in Sioux City on 2 June, 1898? Better: Who died in Sioux City on 2 June 1898? @@ format 18 Avoid: After February 25 1946 the inspector began to take his chess game more seriously. Better: After February 25, 1946, the inspector began to take his chess game more seriously. @@ format 19 Avoid: There is no better hamburger in the west. Better: There is no better hamburger in the West. @@ format 20 @@ format 21 @@ format 22 Examples of Usage: The candidates, i.e., the bank president, the owner of the local tavern, and the delicatessen manager, were interviewed at length by the newspaper. Find some reason (e.g., you're getting your wisdom teeth extracted) to postpone your court appearance. @@ format 24 Examples of Usage: The decorator strongly advised us to use the pink. We decided, however, to go with the mauve. We will be taking the bus. You can come by plane, however. We will get to the bottom of this problem however long it takes. Floyd can interpret my comments however he wants. @@ format 27 Avoid: The painting sold for 1.5 million dollars. Which was about twice its true value. Better: The painting sold for 1.5 million dollars, which was about twice its true value. @@ idio 1 Avoid: His accomplis was found hiding in the furniture department. Better: His accomplice was found hiding in the furniture department. @@ lexical 5 Examples of Usage: We must persevere in spite of his truculent behavior. His sister bought the car despite his advice that it was a lemon. @@ lexical 7 Avoid: Firstly, we are not responsible for this. Secondly, we will not reimburse employees for it. Thirdly, the operation will be handled by another department soon. Better: First, we are not responsible for this. Second, we will not reimburse employees for it. Third, the operation will be handled by another department soon. @@ lexical 15 Overused qualifiers can weaken writing: kind of furious, sort of slow, pretty spectacular. Substitute a less colloquial qualifier, use a more precise adjective, or eliminate the qualifier altogether. Avoid: Ingrid was sort of terrified to jump out at 13,000 feet. Better: Ingrid was terrified to jump out at 13,000 feet. Avoid: Do you feel kind of tacky in that sweater? Better: Do you feel inappropriate in that sweater? Avoid: I can't wear these contact lenses because it is kind of smoggy today. Better: I can't wear these contact lenses because it is rather smoggy today. @@ lexical 39 Examples of Usage: We can discuss your sister's reaction to your predicament later. The former course of action is unsavory and the latter is unthinkable. Jones and Henley debated last night at the high school auditorium. The latter candidate showed an embarrassing ignorance of the issues. @@ lexical 40 Avoid: This esteemed organization contacted me per my letter of complaint. Better: This esteemed organization contacted me in reference to my letter of complaint. Avoid: We mailed the package as per your instructions. Better: We mailed the package according to your instructions. @@ lexical 41 Avoid: She gathered cigarette butts, shredded memos, and a plastic fork and delivered same to the laboratory for analysis. Better: She gathered cigarette butts, shredded memos, and a plastic fork and delivered them to the laboratory for analysis. Avoid: The charge is fifty dollars. Please remit same. Better: The charge is fifty dollars. Please remit this amount. @@ lexical 42 Avoid: Jim is not enthused about your decision to move the office to Hackensack. Better: Jim is not enthusiastic about your decision to move the office to Hackensack. Avoid: Fran came back from her vacation enthused with country living. Better: Fran came back from her vacation enthusiastic about country living. @@ phrase 3 Examples of Usage: We go camping almost every weekend in the summer. [The adverb "almost" modifies the adjective "every".] We go camping most weekends in the summer. [The adjective "most" modifies the noun "weekends".] @@ phrase 4 The past participle is used with a form of the auxiliary verb "have". It should not be confused with the simple past tense. Examples of Usage: The Feldmans began their business in 1949. ["Began" is the simple past tense.] We have begun to move all these shelves into the basement. ["Begun" is the past participle.] Her wallet sank like a stone while she watched. ["Sank" is the simple past tense.] How many thousands of dollars have you sunk into this misguided project? ["Sunk" is the past participle.] In early July, Jane saw the light. ["Saw" is the simple past tense.] This man has seen every pathology you can imagine. ["Seen" is the past participle.] @@ phrase 5 Examples of Usage: I'm sure we're not supposed to put our feet up on this sofa. Fran is supposed to bring a tuna casserole to the dinner. @@ phrase 6 The phrase "have got to" has more than one meaning. When it expresses obligation, it is colloquial and should be avoided in formal writing. Avoid: I have got to pay off these debts quickly. Better: I have to pay off these debts quickly. Or: I must pay off these debts quickly. When it means "had the opportunity to", use the past participle "gotten" instead of "got" or rephrase. Avoid: Amy has got to attend three conferences and I haven't been to one yet. Better: Amy has gotten to attend three conferences and I haven't been to one yet. Or: Amy has attended three conferences and I haven't been to one yet. @@ phrase 7 Examples of Usage: Those attending the party will be held liable for the condition of the lobby at the end of the night. Doreen sued the newspaper for libel after it printed its tawdry story. @@ phrase 9 @@ phrase 12 Sentences containing the contraction "who's" are potentially ambiguous. In a sentence that begins "We told the man who's ailing parents...", the word "who's" could be a contraction for "who is" (We told the man who is ailing parents can't accompany their children) or it might be an error for "whose" (We told the man whose ailing parents required full-time care to contact our representative). To avoid ambiguity, spell out the contraction or use the possessive "whose". @@ phrase 14 @@ phrase 15 People often confuse the words "there", "their", and "they're" because they sound the same. Sentences containing these words may be ambiguous. The sentence "Help should be given to such people only after they're victims" might be correct or the word "they're" might be an error for "their". Likewise, "I remembered their on the boat" might be a mistake for "I remembered they're on the boat," "I remembered there on the boat," or even "I remembered theirs on the boat." @@ phrase 22 Avoid: Eddie's and June's dog escaped from the kennel last night. Better: Eddie and June's dog escaped from the kennel last night. @@ phrase 23 Avoid: They claim its usually cold in this room. Better: They claim it's usually cold in this room. @@ phrase 24 Avoid: What makes you think your an artistic genius? Better: What makes you think you're an artistic genius? @@ phrase 25 Avoid: Whose minding the store? Better: Who's minding the store? Avoid: I think I know who's raincoat this is. Better: I think I know whose raincoat this is. @@ phrase 31 @@ phrase 32 @@ phrase 37 The forms "its" and "it's" are particularly problematic. Since nouns show possession with the ending 's (the boy's hat; a book's cover), people often incorrectly extend this rule to the pronoun "it" and assume the possessive should be "it's". Avoid: They chose the beagle because it's color was better. Better: They chose the beagle because its color was better. Avoid: Its easy for people who have never known this kind of adversity to complain. Better: It's easy for people who have never known this kind of adversity to complain. Sentences containing the word "it's" may be ambiguous. For example, in the sentence "I understand it's trouble," the word "it's" may stand for "it is" or it may be an error for "its". Such ambiguous interpretations can be avoided by spelling out "it's" as "it is" or "it has". @@ phrase 43 Avoid: We have thirty years of work experience between the five of us. Better: We have thirty years of work experience among the five of us. @@ redun 17 Avoid: Reggie found the murder weapon outside of the drawing room window. Better: Reggie found the murder weapon outside the drawing room window. Avoid: No one came to see the play outside of a few dozen expatriates. Better: No one came to see the play except a few dozen expatriates. @@ redun 19 Avoid: Mrs. Gable left the stiletto inside of the velvet box. Better: Mrs. Gable left the stiletto inside the velvet box. Avoid: The emergency helicopter will be here inside of fifteen minutes. Better: The emergency helicopter will be here in less than fifteen minutes. Avoid: Profits from this operation were slightly inside of $1.5 million. Better: Profits from this operation were slightly less than $1.5 million. @@ redun 26 The term "comparative" refers to the form of an adjective or adverb which is used to compare the degree of a quality it expresses. Most one- and two- syllable words take the ending -er to form the comparative: stronger, faster, funnier, healthier. Some two-syllable words and most words of more than two syllables use the word "more" to indicate the comparative: more rapid, more avid, more tantalizing, more reliable. Avoid using both an -er ending and the word "more" with a single comparative. @@ redun 27 Avoid: Myra laughed at the suggestion that there is no such thing as a better cheaper college. Better: Myra laughed at the suggestion that there is no such thing as a better, cheaper college. @@ redun 28 Avoid: This has been the dampest dullest vacation we've ever taken. Better: This has been the dampest, dullest vacation we've ever taken. @@ redun 31 Avoid: The reason why Mrs. Klim is upset is that Andrea has decided to try her luck in Hollywood. Better: The reason Mrs. Klim is upset is that Andrea has decided to try her luck in Hollywood. Or: Mrs. Klim is upset because Andrea has decided to try her luck in Hollywood. @@ redun 32 Avoid: The reason they failed to reach the top is because they carried too many supplies. Better: The reason they failed to reach the top is that they carried too many supplies. Or: They failed to reach the top because they carried too many supplies. @@ redun 33 Avoid: His sisters took up and left town when they heard the news. Better: His sisters suddenly left town when they heard the news. @@ redun 35 Some sentences containing "more", "very", or "most" with a seemingly superlative adjective like "unique" or "perfect" are ambiguous. For example, "I want some more perfect children" may mean that your children are perfect and that you wish you had some more of them, or it may mean that you wish your children did not, in fact, fall short of perfection. You should paraphrase the sentence to clarify your meaning and eliminate the double superlative. @@ scpun 1 Examples of Usage: The brave men...have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it.... The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. @@ scpun 2 Use a single dash with dates, reference numbers, and to represent the word "to" between words and numbers: 9-4-78, page 17-2, 9:30-12:30, the New York- Los Angeles flight. Use double dashes (--) to set off a discontinuity in thought or material that explains the main clause. Examples of Usage: The man who entered the room last -- you met him in 1979 -- is a suspect in the heist. @@ scpun 3 If a sentence ends with an abbreviation, the period after the abbreviation also ends the sentence. You do not need an additional period. When an abbreviation occurs at the end of a question or exclamation, the sentence should have two punctuation marks in a row. Examples of Usage: She claims she has a Ph.D. Does she claim she has a Ph.D.? She claims she has a Ph.D.! @@ scpun 6 Examples of Usage: Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth...a new nation...dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth ... a new nation ... dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. @@ scpun 11 @@ scpun 14 @@ scpun 15 @@ scpun 16 @@ scpun 18 @@ scpun 22 @@ scpun 24 @@ scpun 25 @@ scpun 26 UNINTERRUPTED QUOTATIONS: Quotation marks are used to enclose a person's exact words. Use a capital letter to begin a quotation: John asked, "Are you sure this chicken is boneless?" Clauses of attribution like "John asked" are set off from the quotation with a comma. Sentence terminators (period, question mark, and exclamation point) go inside the closing quotation mark: Mary stated, "The operation went smoothly." George shouted, "Pass the ball!" A quotation in the first part of a sentence that would ordinarily be terminated with a period is terminated with a comma instead: "The operation went smoothly," Mary stated. However, an exclamation point or question mark is retained: "Pass the ball!" George shouted. No more than one terminator is used at the end of a quotation. The following sentence is incorrectly punctuated: Did you ask yourself, "Why am I in this situation again?"? The final question mark is unnecessary. When there is a quote within a quotation, a period goes inside both the single and double quotation marks: John commented, "I never said, 'I am not a crook.'" An exclamation point or a question mark goes inside the single quotation mark if it is part of the inner quotation: John said, "Then he sobbed, 'I am not a crook!'" Otherwise it goes between the single and the double quotation marks: John asked, "Who said, 'I am not a crook'?" INTERRUPTED QUOTATIONS: If the quotation is interrupted by an attribution clause, the second part of the quotation begins with a lowercase letter: "Are you sure," asked John, "that this chicken is boneless?" A comma precedes the closing quotation mark of the first part. SPECIAL TERMS: Quotation marks may also be used to enclose technical terms, slang, and words used in an ironic sense: Some patients have alimentary or "functional" hypoglycemia. If these special terms appear at the end of a sentence, the terminator may go after the closing quotation mark. @@ scpun 12 @@ scpun 13 Examples of Usage: Bring enough money for two weeks (in case the banks fail to honor your check). Bring enough money to protect yourself in an emergency. (The banks may refuse to honor your check!) @@ scpun 21 A direct quotation presents someone's exact words: Fred said, "I'll be out of town by sunrise." An indirect quotation reports the words spoken by oneself or someone else: Fred said he would be out of town by sunrise. @@ sent 1 Double negatives occur when a clause contains two negative words where one is sufficient. In earlier times, double negatives were considered grammatical in English, but now they are considered unacceptable. Even in sentences which are not strictly speaking double negatives, overuse of negatives can weaken writing, and sentence style can often be improved by rephrasing to reduce the number of negative words. "We are very unhappy with your decision" is clearer than "We are not a little unhappy with your decision"; "I can't imagine a world without flowers" is clearer than "I can't imagine a world with no flowers." @@ sent 2 @@ sent 3 @@ sent 4 @@ sent 6 "There" and "here" are not usually subjects of a sentence. In sentences beginning with "there" or "here", the true subject and verb must agree in number. This rule also applies to questions with "there" and "here". Examples of Usage: Here comes your dinner. ["Here" is an adverb; the verb is "comes"; the subject is "dinner". "Comes" agrees with "dinner".] There are three reasons you can't go. ["There" is a place-holder; the verb is "are"; the subject is "reasons". "Are" agrees with "reasons".] Have there been any phone calls for me? ["There" is a place-holder; the auxiliary verb is "have"; the subject is "phone calls". "Have" agrees with "phone calls".] Has there been a rash of car thefts? ["There" is a place-holder; the auxiliary verb is "has"; the subject is "rash". "Has" agrees with "rash".] @@ sent 8 If the words preceding the semicolon do not form a complete sentence, consider substituting a comma or rephrasing. Avoid: When the guests have arrived and had cocktails; we will serve dinner. Better: When the guests have arrived and had cocktails, we will serve dinner. Examples of Usage: We admired the furniture; our host seemed to expect it. We need the following items: groceries for the meal; volunteers for planning, preparing, and serving it; and certain kitchen implements. @@ svoc 1 @@ svoc 2 @@ svoc 3 @@ svoc 4 Subjects and verbs must agree in person and number. 1st person singular I am I like 2nd person singular you are you like 3rd person singular he/she/it is he/she/it likes 1st person plural we are we like 2nd person plural you are you like 3rd person plural they are they like In the simplest cases, the subject and verb are close to each other: The sheriff always gets his man. Errors of subject-verb agreement often occur when the subject and verb are far apart: Much of the feedback from these projects comes from the students themselves. [The subject is "much"; the verb is "comes".] There are some exceptions to the basic subject-verb agreement rule. Certain collective nouns like "number" and "majority" take a plural verb when preceded by "a": We believe a majority of those invited are coming. They take a singular verb when preceded by "the": The number of accidents is increasing. Certain subjunctive constructions allow you to violate ordinary agreement: They demand that he take another course; It is imperative that she alter her plans. Compound subjects where nouns are joined by "and" take a plural verb: The scuba diver and her friend are at lunch. An apparent exception to this rule occurs when the nouns are preceded by "every": Every man and woman wants peace. If the noun phrases in a compound subject are joined by "or" or "nor", the verb agrees with the last noun: Neither the owners nor the manager wants to sell the business. Unusual subject-verb agreement error messages may arise if the sentence structure does not provide enough information to determine whether a word is a noun or a verb. The detection of subject-verb agreement errors depends on correct identification of nouns and verbs. English allows many words to act as both. Consider the following pair of sentences: Each answers question sets. Each answer questions sets. With the exception of "each", all the words in these sentences may be both verbs and nouns. Both sentences may be correct, or one may be an error for the other. The right interpretation requires reference to a larger context. @@ vgc 1 @@ vgc 2 Examples of Usage: Just when I thought I was almost finished, the computer burped, crashed, and lost my data. ["Burped", "crashed" and "lost" have the subject "computer".] She exercises daily and look what it does for her. [The subject of "exercises" is "she"; the subject of "look" is the implied "you".] @@ vgc 4 Use the past participle of a verb with the passive voice and with the auxiliary verb "have". For most verbs, the past participle has the same form as the simple past. Both are made by adding -ed: we remembered, she was remembered, we have remembered; she washed, it was washed, she has washed. Some verbs form past participles with -en: she has ridden, they have given, it was written. Other verbs use an unpredictable form or use the same form throughout: we have sung, they have gone, he has thought, they have read, it was cut. Avoid: The bottle was broke when we found it. Better: The bottle was broken when we found it. Avoid: We have wrote them a long letter. Better: We have written them a long letter. @@ vgc 5 @@ vgc 6 In the active voice, the subect of a sentence is the primary actor. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is not the primary actor, but is acted upon. Often a sentence is more direct and forceful in the active voice. Here is a sentence in the passive voice: The budget recommendations were studied by the governor. Recast in the active voice, the sentence is stronger and more direct: The governor studied the budget recommendations. The passive voice can be useful when the actor is not known, or is of no importance. For example: The notice has been posted throughout the campus. Using the passive voice in a subordinate clause is more likely to be acceptable than passive voice in the main clause. Here is an example of the passive voice in a subordinate clause: The briefcase, which had been left at the airport, contained valuable reports. Correct Grammar uses two different rules to flag main and subordinate clauses. You may want to turn just one of them off. @@ word 1 The adverb "awhile" modifies a verb. Since "a while" acts as a noun phrase, it may occur after a preposition. Examples of Usage: We rested awhile after lunch. [The adverb "awhile" modifies the verb "rested".] We will rest for a while after lunch. [The noun phrase "a while" is the object of the preposition "for".] Let's swim awhile. [The adverb "awhile" modifies the verb "swim".] Let's swim in a while. [The noun phrase "a while" is the object of the preposition "in".] @@ word 3 "Everyone" is a pronoun. "Every one" is a phrase made up of the adjective "every" and the pronoun "one". These two forms are not interchangeable. Use "everyone" in contexts where it is acceptable to substitute "everybody". Use "every one" where it is acceptable to substitute "every single one". Examples of Usage: The instructor asked if everyone had filled out the forms. The instructor asked if every one of the forms was filled out. He informed everyone of his intention to sue the landlord. @@ word 8 Examples of Usage: Maude expressed real, heart-felt misgivings about Stanley's plan to circumnavigate the globe in a rubber raft. ["Real" is an adjective which modifies the noun "misgivings".] Are those real gold fillings? ["Real" is an adjective which modifies the noun adjunct "gold". No comma is needed since the modifier directly precedes the noun it modifies.] @@ word 11 Examples of Usage: Marge eluded her ex-husband by hiding in the broom closet. In his press conference, Bill alluded to his opponent's voting record on taxes. @@ word 12 Examples of Usage: We never go to the movies anymore. ["Anymore" is an adverb which modifies the verb "go".] Les doesn't have any more diskettes. ["Any more" acts as an adjective which modifies the noun "diskettes".] @@ word 13 Examples of Usage: Marge eluded her ex-husband by hiding in the broom closet. In his press conference, Bill alluded to his opponent's voting record on taxes. @@ word 14 @@ word 25 People often confuse "raise" and "rise" because they sound alike and have similar meanings. "Raise" is a transitive verb; it requires a direct object which tells you what was lifted up. "Rise" is an intransitive verb; it does not take a direct object. It is the subject that is lifted up. The principal parts of the verb "raise" are: He raises the flag. [present tense; direct object is "the flag"] He is raising the flag. [present participle] He raised the flag. [past tense] He has raised the flag. [past participle] The principal parts of the verb "rise" are: The dough rises. [present tense; no direct object] The dough is rising. [present participle] The dough rose. [past tense] The dough has risen. [past participle] @@ word 15 @@ word 20 @@ word 23 People often confuse "lay" and "lie" because they sound alike and have similar meanings. "Lay" means to put down; it requires a direct object which tells you what was put down. "Lie" means to recline; it does not take a direct object and is often followed by a prepositional phrase. It is the subject that reclines. The principal parts of the verb "lay" are: He lays the book down. [present tense; direct object is "the book"] He is laying the book down. [present participle] He laid the book down. [past tense] He has laid the book down. [past participle] The principal parts of the verb "lie" are: The book lies on the table. [present tense; no direct object] The book is lying on the table. [present participle] The book lay on the table. [past tense] The book has lain on the table. [past participle] @@ word 16 People often confuse "set" and "sit" because they sound alike and have similar meanings. "Set" means to put down; it requires a direct object which tells you what was put down and often also takes a prepositional phrase. "Sit" indicates a motion; it does not usually take a direct object. The principal parts of the verb "set" are: He set the cup on the desk. [present tense; direct object is "the cup"] He is setting the cup on the desk. [present participle] He set the cup on the desk. [past tense] He has set the cup on the desk. [past participle] The principal parts of the verb "sit" are: The dog sits on the grass. [present tense; no direct object] The dog is sitting on the grass. [present participle] The dog sat on the grass. [past tense] The dog has sat on the grass. [past participle] @@ word 17 @@ word 24 "Precede" means to go before; it requires a direct object which tells you what the subject went before. "Proceed" means to go on; it does not take a direct object and is often followed by a prepositional phrase. It is the subject that goes on. Examples of Usage: A main course of tasteless chicken fricassee preceded a dessert of fabulous chocolate mousse. The nervous bureaucrat proceeded to record our vital statistics. You may proceed with your questions when Bob has finished talking. @@ word 18 @@ word 19 @@ word 21 @@ word 22 Nouns may be classified as either count or mass. Count nouns refer to individual entities that can be counted: bricks, apples, ideas, apologies. Mass nouns denote an undifferentiated mass that cannot be broken into countable units: furniture, music, realism, pride. Count nouns have a plural form; mass nouns are usually singular. Use "many" and "fewer" with count nouns and "much" and "less" with mass nouns. A common mistake is to use "much" and "less" with count nouns. Avoid: Joe had so much responsibilities! Better: Joe had so many responsibilities! Avoid: Daphne had less problems last year. Better: Daphne had fewer problems last year. @@ word 28 Use personal pronouns in compound subjects instead of reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves). Subject Object pronoun pronoun 1st person singular I me 2nd person singular you you 3rd person singular he, she, it him, her, it 1st person plural we us 2nd person plural you you 3rd person plural they them If you are unsure of the pronoun to use, try deleting the other nouns in the subject to see if the pronoun can stand alone. If your sentence is "John and I went to the concert," you can determine from the test sentence "I went to the concert" that you have used the correct pronoun. The reflexive pronouns are used when the subject performs the action upon itself (Susan hurt herself) and for emphasis (Susan herself moved these boxes). They are never used as subject pronouns. @@ word 29 The word "like" should not be used to introduce a subordinate clause. Use "as" or "as if" instead. Avoid: I don't want to end up like Bob has. Better: I don't want to end up as Bob has. Avoid: Rachel acted like we were bothering her. Better: Rachel acted as if we were bothering her. The preposition "like" is followed by a noun phrase. Examples of Usage: This car sounds like a threshing machine. Jane handled the situation like a professional. @@ word 30 The possessive form of most singular nouns is formed by adding 's. The possessive form of most plural nouns is formed by adding an apostrophe. Avoid: We value our customers opinions. Better: We value our customer's opinions. [one customer] Or: We value our customers' opinions. [more than one customer] @@ word 31 To decide whether to use an adjective or adverb, ask yourself which word it modifies. If it modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, use an adverb. If it modifies a noun or pronoun, use an adjective. Examples of Usage: He talked slowly. [The adverb "slowly" modifies the verb "talked".] She fell silent. [The adjective "silent" modifies the pronoun "she".] Liz looked bad after the accident. [The adjective "bad" modifies the proper noun "Liz".] Liz looked carefully for any typographical errors. [The adverb "carefully" modifies the verb "looked".] Andrea feels strong now that she's weight-lifting. [The adjective "strong" modifies the proper noun "Andrea".] Andrea feels strongly that her client was framed. [The adverb "strongly" modifies the verb "feels".] @@ word 36 Examples of Usage: This has been an awful, tiring meeting. ["Awful" is an adjective which modifies the noun "meeting".] This has been an awfully tiring meeting. ["Awfully" is an adverb which modifies the adjective "tiring".] @@ word 37 Examples of Usage: In 1987 a large percentage of his time was spent worrying about his personal life. After the press conference, her popularity rating dropped twelve percent. @@ word 38 Examples of Usage: In 1987 a large percentage of his time was spent worrying about his personal life. After the press conference, her popularity rating dropped twelve percent. @@ word 40 @@ word 41 The distinction between "who" and "whom" is no longer maintained in spoken English; consequently, people are often confused about the correct usage of these pronouns in writing. To determine whether to use "who" or "whom", find the verb in the clause. If the pronoun stands for the subject of the verb, use "who". If the pronoun stands for the object of the verb or the object of a preposition, use "whom". Examples of Usage: We don't know who stole his motorcycle. ["Who" is the subject of the verb "stole".] They wondered whom Jack would invite to the party. ["Whom" is the object of the verb "invite".] Wally wondered who he should say was calling. ["Who" is the subject of the verb "was calling".] Give this door prize to whoever arrives first. ["Whoever" is the subject of the verb "arrives".] The club members vetoed whomever he nominated. ["Whomever" is the object of the verb "nominated".] @@ word 42 A noun modifier may itself be modified. If these modifiers appear before the noun, they are hyphenated. If they follow the noun, they are not hyphenated. If the first modifier is an adverb ending in -ly, it is never hyphenated. Examples of Usage: This is a well-maintained building. This building is well maintained. This is a fully maintained building. This building is fully maintained. @@ word 43 Subject Object 1st person singular I me 2nd person singular you you 3rd person singular he, she, it him, her, it 1st person plural we us 2nd person plural you you 3rd person plural they them Avoid: The winner is him who circles the building first. Better: The winner is he who circles the building first. Avoid: It's them who wanted to meet at the restaurant. Better: It's they who wanted to meet at the restaurant. @@ word 44 "Adopt" is transitive; it requires a direct object which tells what was taken by choice. "Adapt" may be transitive, taking a direct object which tells what was adjusted. It may also be intransitive, often taking a prepositional phrase that begins with "to". Examples of Usage: The Kermans have adopted two children. The committee adopted a resolution to raise money for the homeless. Can we adapt these plans if the budget is not approved? Give these fish a few hours to adapt to the new water temperature. @@ word 50 Use an object pronoun, rather than a subject pronoun, as the object of a verb or preposition. Subject Object 1st person singular I me 2nd person singular you you 3rd person singular he, she, it him, her, it 1st person plural we us 2nd person plural you you 3rd person plural they them If you are unsure of the pronoun to use, try removing the other objects to see if the pronoun can stand alone. If your sentence is "Jean admired Maureen and me," you can determine from the test sentence "Jean admired me" that you have used the correct pronoun. Similarly, you can test the sentence "Mona ordered tapioca pudding for Stewart and him," with the sentence "Mona ordered tapioca pudding for him." @@ word 51 Use an object pronoun, rather than a subject pronoun, as the object of a verb or preposition. Subject Object 1st person singular I me 2nd person singular you you 3rd person singular he, she, it him, her, it 1st person plural we us 2nd person plural you you 3rd person plural they them If you are unsure of the pronoun to use, try removing the other objects to see if the pronoun can stand alone. If your sentence is "Jean admired Maureen and me," you can determine from the test sentence "Jean admired me" that you have used the correct pronoun. Similarly, you can test the sentence "Mona ordered tapioca pudding for Stewart and him," with the sentence "Mona ordered tapioca pudding for him." @@ word 52 Avoid: Reggie couldn't understand how I and my mother could miss the Van Gogh exhibit. Better: Reggie couldn't understand how my mother and I could miss the Van Gogh exhibit. Avoid: Miss Sneltzer is giving me and Fred a very hard time. Better: Miss Sneltzer is giving Fred and me a very hard time. @@ word 53 Use a subject pronoun, rather than an object pronoun, as the subject of a clause. Subject Object 1st person singular I me 2nd person singular you you 3rd person singular he, she, it him, her, it 1st person plural we us 2nd person plural you you 3rd person plural they them If you are unsure of the pronoun to use, try removing the other subjects to see if the pronoun can stand alone. If your sentence is "Mr. Russo thought Jim and she drew up the plans," you can determine from the test sentence "Mr. Russo thought she drew up the plans" that you have used the correct pronoun. @@ word 54 A pronoun that modifies a subject noun should be in subject form. A pronoun that modifies an object noun should be in object form. Subject Object 1st person singular I me 2nd person singular you you 3rd person singular he, she, it him, her, it 1st person plural we us 2nd person plural you you 3rd person plural they them If you are unsure of the pronoun to use, try removing the noun to see if the pronoun can stand alone. If your sentence is "No one bothered us tourists," you can determine from the test sentence "No one bothered us" that you have used the correct form of the pronoun. @@ word 55 Words that begin with a vowel usually take "an" as the indefinite article: an army, an error, an image, an orbit, an underling. Words that begin with a consonant usually take "a" as the indefinite article: a carrot, a heretic, a list, a shipwreck. There are some exceptions that may cause difficulty. Words beginning with "u" or "eu" that have a "y" sound take the indefinite article "a": a eulogy, a European, a union, a unit. Words beginning with an unpronounced "h" take the indefinite article "an": an herb, an heir. @@ phrase 26 @@ word 56 Usage Their: The spectators brought their umbrellas. There: Are there any suggestions? Put the folders over there. They're: They're leaving some money to an animal shelter. Theirs: They felt that theirs was the better recipe. @@ word 60 @@ word 61 Examples of Usage: I am not happy about having to wait a month for the course to begin. Is there anything I can do in the meantime? Don needs to go into town to get some food for the trip. Meanwhile, you get the tent ready.